Mariana Rosa^[1]Instituto de Ciências Sociais da Universidade de Lisboa. Mariana Rosa is a Lisbon-based designer and master’s student in Design for Sustainability at the Faculty of Fine Arts, University of … Continue a ler, Roberto Falanga^[2]Instituto de Ciências Sociais da Universidade de Lisboa. Roberto Falanga is an Assistant Research professor at the Institute of Social Sciences, University of Lisbon. His research focuses on the … Continue a ler & João Amorim^[3]Instituto de Ciências Sociais da Universidade de Lisboa. João Amorim holds a degree in Economics from the University of Porto and is a Master’s student in Urban Studies at NOVA-FCSH and … Continue a ler

Abstract:

Democratic backsliding is increasingly addressed through forms of citizen participation and deliberation beyond the ballot box, widely understood as democratic innovations. While these promise to promote the inclusion of underrepresented groups, evidence often lags behind structural inequalities. Legislative Theatre emerges as an arts-based method with the potential to overcome the limitations of standard techniques and to shift the paradigm of theatrical practice for democratic participation. By challenging the conventional passive role of citizens-as-spectators, this method fosters active engagement in the formulation of policy proposals that aspire to bring about real change. In this paper, we discuss the potential of Legislative Theatre, focusing on one specific practice developed in Portugal: Estudantes por Empréstimo. Our analysis highlights how underrepresented groups can be effectively engaged in such participatory arts-based methods to have a voice in mainstream decision-making and to critically unpack preconceived ideas of change^[4]Acknowledgement: This research was conducted within the framework of the INSPIRE: “Intersectional Spaces of Participation: Inclusive, Resilient, Embedded” project, funded by the European … Continue a ler.

Keywords: Legislative Theatre; Democratic Innovations; Arts-based Methods; Portugal.

Resumo:

O retrocesso democrático é cada vez mais abordado através de formas de participação e deliberação dos cidadãos para além das urnas, amplamente entendidas como inovações democráticas. Embora estas inovações prometam promover a inclusão de grupos sub-representados, as evidências ficam frequentemente aquém das desigualdades estruturais. O Teatro Legislativo surge enquanto método artístico com o potencial de ultrapassar as limitações das técnicas padrão e de mudar o paradigma da prática teatral para a participação democrática. Ao desafiar o papel passivo convencional dos cidadãos como espectadores, este método promove o envolvimento ativo na formulação de propostas políticas que aspiram a uma verdadeira mudança. Neste artigo, discutimos o potencial do Teatro Legislativo, focando num projeto específico desenvolvido em Portugal: Estudantes por Empréstimo. A nossa análise destaca a forma como os grupos sub-representados podem ser efetivamente envolvidos nestes métodos criativos e participativos de modo a terem uma voz na tomada de decisões e desvendar criticamente ideias preconcebidas de mudança.

Palavras-chave: Teatro Legislativo; Inovações Democráticas; Métodos Artísticos; Portugal.

Resumen:

El retroceso democrático se aborda cada vez más a través de formas de participación ciudadana y deliberación más allá de las urnas, ampliamente entendidas como innovaciones democráticas. Si bien éstas prometen promover la inclusión de los grupos infrarrepresentados, las pruebas suelen ir a la zaga de las desigualdades estructurales. El Teatro Legislativo surge como un método basado en las artes con el potencial de superar las limitaciones de las técnicas estándar y cambiar el paradigma de la práctica teatral para la participación democrática. Al desafiar el papel pasivo convencional de los ciudadanos como espectadores, este método fomenta el compromiso activo en la formulación de propuestas políticas que aspiran a provocar un cambio real. En este artículo analizamos el potencial del Teatro Legislativo, centrándonos en una práctica específica desarrollada en Portugal: Estudantes por Empréstimo. Nuestro análisis pone de relieve cómo los grupos infrarrepresentados pueden participar eficazmente en estos métodos participativos basados en las artes para tener voz en la toma de decisiones dominante y desentrañar críticamente las ideas preconcebidas de cambio.

Palabras clave: Teatro Legislativo; Innovaciones Democráticas; Métodos Artísticos; Portugal.

1. Introduction

Worldwide, the growth of citizen distrust towards political institutions poses significant challenges to democracy (PRC, 2024). Populist and autocratic tendencies have grown with unprecedented magnitude since the eruption of the most recent financial crisis (Rodríguez-Pose et al., 2023), then followed by a global health crisis in 2020, escalating conflicts, and the underpinning climate emergency (Baldwin and Mares, 2023).

From a theoretical perspective, while formal mechanisms are expected to ensure the inclusion of all citizens – particularly those at the margins of mainstream decision-making – scholars express concern about what is increasingly understood as a widespread democratic backsliding (Warren, 2017). Underrepresented groups, in particular, continue to struggle to meaningfully voice and influence political decisions that affect their daily lives (Fricker, 2007). Rasmussen (2017) observes how individuals from marginalised communities often “fall out” of democratic participation, as their lived experiences remain unacknowledged. This creates a “paralysing paradox”, whereby citizens with nominal rights remain excluded from public debate.

Against this backdrop, and in light of the growing disconnect between elected representatives and their constituencies, scholars have defended the implementation of innovative approaches to democratic deficits (Warren, 2017). Democratic innovations, as early outlined by Smith (2009), have promoted new mechanisms for meaningful participation and deliberation beyond the ballot box. Nevertheless, some scholars caution that, despite holding inclusive purposes, such innovations may, at times, reinforce existing power imbalances. As grievances and discontent grow, social cleavages intensify and place meaningful challenges to the engagement of citizens living in different contexts (McKay et al., 2023). Moreover, as Bussu and colleagues (2025) have recently argued, complex bureaucratic procedures and the use of technical jargon can favour the participation of those already privileged in society. 

Given risks of narrowing the scope of democratic innovations, arts-based methods have been on the surge to offer new avenues for engagement that can potentially transcend the barriers. According to Higueras Carrillo and colleagues (in press), among the many emerging approaches, Legislative Theatre (LT) has attracted the interest of scholars, activists, practitioners, and policymakers alike. Developed during Augusto Boal’s tenure as a city councillor in Rio de Janeiro (1993–1997), this method is notable for linking artistic expression with policy development (Salvador, 2014). This participatory approach builds on Paulo Freire’s principles and Boal’s Theatre of the Oppressed, seeking to actively intervene in institutional politics. As Boal (1998) explains, LT can create new spaces for citizen engagement, enabling participants to critically explore structural inequalities and generate policy proposals through artistic processes.

In this paper, we explore the potential of LT to meaningfully engage and empower underrepresented communities to have a voice in policymaking. Specifically, we investigate whether and how LT helps reframe our understanding of structural inequalities that carry negative impact over the community of students. Through an inquiry of Estudantes por Empréstimo (Students on Loan) – one of the most robust LT-based projects in Portugal thus far – we centre our empirical analysis by combining document analysis and an in-depth interview with José Soeiro, its lead partner. The project aimed to enable students to collaboratively reflect on their lived experiences of economic hardship before financial barriers in the higher education system, and translate these reflections into policy-oriented proposals (Soeiro, 2021).

2. Democratic Innovations

According to Smith (2021), our democracies currently find themselves in a cul-de-sac due to their inability to move beyond political short-termism. Citizens are increasingly sceptical of democracy’s capacity to produce long-term change, regardless of the influence exerted by powerful interest groups. Democratic innovations are, however, seen as holding positive potential in addressing such deficiencies (Smith, 2009; Warren, 2017). By drawing upon the principles of participatory and deliberative democracy, both of which emphasise the need for greater social inclusion in democratic processes, democratic innovations pursue egalitarian and open engagement with the aim of empowering the wider public (O’Flynn, 2019).

Democratic innovations are not immune of shortcomings, especially regarding inclusivity – an especially pressing concern for democracy when it comes to the engagement of underrepresented groups. The scholarly debate on the inclusionary character of democratic innovations is rooted in a broader, long-standing discussion about the legitimacy of citizens in generating (policy-oriented) knowledge. Evidence shows that groups from disadvantaged backgrounds often exhibit low levels of engagement (de Graaf et al., 2015), as do women (Allegretti & Falanga, 2016) and ethnic minorities (Mendelberg & Oleske, 2000). The voices of young people also frequently go unnoticed, particularly in relation to environmental politics (Sloam et al., 2022). 

Together, these drawbacks take a toll on the reduction of knowledge and power imbalances that democratic innovations are intended to address (Fung & Wright, 2001) and remind us that all democratic practices do not take place in a vacuum. Considering that structural inequalities can have significant impact over innovations, scholars increasingly advocate for stronger connections with self-advocacy groups (Beauvais & Bächtiger, 2016). Grassroots organizations, civil society groups, and social movements are believed to enhance the impact and legitimacy of such practices (della Porta & Felicetti, 2022). Moreover, educational outcomes are more likely when these practices are meaningfully linked with the self-advocacy of underrepresented communities, thereby helping to mitigate disparities in resources, opportunities, and access (Knobloch, 2022).

Against this background, Chilvers and Kearnes (2020) argue that methodological experimentation is valuable for challenging traditional expert–citizen hierarchies and countering the risk of dominant groups distancing participants from the process.

2.1. Arts-based methods

Arts-based methods have demonstrated effectiveness in fostering inclusion among diverse populations, enhancing participants’ wellbeing, and developing their capabilities and confidence (Francis, 2013). When participants lead their own consciousness-raising processes, this can increase democratic engagement and promote social equity. As Freire (1970) conceptualised, a participant-led conscientization process strengthens democracy insofar as it enables the incorporation of all affected stakeholders into policy discussions. Nunn (2022, p. 252) offers additional insights into participatory arts-based research, understanding it as a relational approach capable of creating an inclusive sphere of belonging:

This is practical: providing an environment and relations that encourage the ongoing commitment and contribution of community co-researchers; ethical: facilitating the democratisation of the process through ensuring that research is co-produced and benefits co-researchers and their communities. 

Therefore, arts-based methods can create spaces where participants collectively develop a shared understanding of systemic inequities and challenge conventional problem definitions. One advantage of these methods is their capacity to address epistemic injustice by lending credibility to perspectives that are often overlooked (Fricker, 2007). The collaborative process of creating artistic artefacts can involve all participants in generating social meanings and interpreting lived experiences collectively, thereby producing knowledge that contributes to fostering social equity.

     2.1.1. Applied Theatre as political expression

Performance-based methods, and theatrical approaches in particular, play a significant role among arts-based methods (Higueras Carrillo et al., in press). These methods are considered to offer added value through embodied and sensory experiences, enabling participants to engage via physical expression and emotional connection rather than solely through verbal means (Boal, 1979). Theatre serves as a particularly effective medium for examining the complex social dynamics that arise through participation, and for encouraging dialogue in diverse ways (Prendergast & Saxton, 2016). Among these approaches, Applied Theatre addresses social, educational, and/or community issues (Sextou & Smith, 2017).

As Taylor (2006) notes, Applied Theatre serves as an umbrella term “for finding links and connections for all of us committed to the power of theatre in making a difference in the human lifespan” (p. 93). Applied Theatre is frequently practised outside conventional theatrical settings and engages underrepresented groups, functioning as a tool for both personal development and social transformation. Workshops or interactive performances may be used within Applied Theatre to invite the audience to generate and/or interpret a specific piece, which “may or may not be scripted in the traditional manner” (Prendergast & Saxton, 2016, p. 7).

Applied Theatre has found one of its most distinctive expressions in the Theatre of the Oppressed. Developed by Boal (1979) and influenced by Paulo Freire’s educational philosophy, the Theatre of the Oppressed represents a specific approach focused on addressing social and political oppression through a range of techniques, such as Forum Theatre, in which audience members actively suggest changes to the performance. Boal (1998) coined the term “spect-actors”, combining “spectator” and “actor”, to describe audience members who engage actively in performances rather than observing passively. Spect-actors can take to the stage by “figuratively and literally leaving their seats to make ‘interventions’ to end the oppressions” (Sloane & Wallin, 2013, p. 457). While such interventions can hardly end real-world forms of oppression, they can unlock a first meaningful step in raising awareness for a more inclusive society. In this sort of setting, the “joker” is a specific spect-actor that questions lived experiences, encouraging other spect-ators to reflect on and interact with them (Boal, 1998). This role is of pivotal importance and serves to introduce more complexity to the process (Soeiro, 2021) by, at times, offering needed inputs to a systemic analysis of the issues at hand (Mitchell, 2001). 

Applied Theatre can also incorporate Image Theatre, which uses physical freeze-frames to express both abstract emotions and concrete situations related to experiences of oppression. Whilst all of these theatrical methods aim to achieve social objectives, Applied Theatre maintains a broader scope. In contrast, the Theatre of the Oppressed and its derivatives specifically address dynamics of power and resistance, focusing on the experiences of underrepresented communities. 

It is worth acknowledging the boundaries within which these approaches operate. Although the Theatre of the Oppressed provides significant instruments for the promotion of awareness and the fostering of community participation, its application is constrained by a particular methodological framework and contextual parameters (Higueras Carrillo et al., in press). As a form of embodied rehearsal for social change, Theatre of the Oppressed and its derivatives (Fig.1) are designed to explore and challenge oppressive dynamics, rather than directly dismantle structural systems of power. In fact, the efficacy of the approach is contingent upon the cultural context, the adept facilitation, and the propensity of the participants to engage in collective reflection and action, according to Boal (1979).

Figure 1 – ‘The Tree of the Theatre of the Oppressed’ by Augusto Boal (2006).

3. Legislative Theatre: Performing political change

LT emerged as a branch of the Theatre of the Oppressed, which involves using theatre as part of the legislative process to achieve political change with members of marginalized communities. These communities are invited to actively participate to ensure that legally recognized rights are not merely theoretical, but implemented in practice (Elliott, 2021). While the original theatrical approach questioned the passive spectatorship imposed on underrepresented groups, LT boldly intercepts the core of institutional politics – a domain where the division between active decision-makers and silent observers is most starkly and paradoxically manifested (Salvador, 2014). LT therefore challenges the fundamental social hierarchy that arbitrarily distributes the power of speech and thought (Soeiro, 2019).

In addition, LT enables participants to reflect on the different layers that constitute the intricate systems of oppression constraining underrepresented communities (Soeiro, 2019). As the origins of these systems are uncovered, communities rehearse solutions collectively with grassroots and/or institutional partners directly involved in the issue at stake. To achieve this, LT should be regarded as a space of encounter for marginalized communities to critique existing power structures and rewrite the very rules that limit their lives (Bussu et al., 2025).

Although an LT performance is not limited to a strict framework, it can be divided into four distinct phases: (i) Watch; (ii) Act; (iii) Propose; and (iv) Vote (People Powered, 2022). The process begins with a theatrical performance that brings to life the authentic experiences and challenges faced by community members. This initial staging serves as a catalyst for deeper engagement, as audience members are then invited to step onto the stage themselves, becoming active participants who test and explore various approaches to addressing the issues presented. This interactive phase evolves naturally into policy discussions, during which community members collaborate with policymakers to craft proposals for change. The process culminates in a democratic exercise, where participants collectively evaluate and vote on proposals that emerged from the theatrical explorations, ultimately making shared commitments to implement the chosen solutions.

Despite promoting an alternative way of discussing legislation, this method has some limitations that must be acknowledged. A limitation of a forum is the danger of merely reinforcing the opinions held by the group (Mitchell, 2001). According to Soeiro (2019), LT, like any participatory arts-based method, can be reduced to a superficial complement to mainstream decision-making, where, rather than serving as a tool for emancipation, it can be co-opted into the mere regulation of popular participation without redistributing deliberative power. A particular danger arises when LT becomes fixated on form, especially when reduced to simply mimicking institucional behaviours, rather than functioning as a genuine process of community organization (Soeiro, 2019).

4. Methodology and objectives

This paper combines insights retrieved from the scoping review on arts-based methods conducted within the EU project INSPIRE: “Intersectional Spaces of Participation: Inclusive, Resilient, Embedded” and the analysis of one case study from Portugal: Estudantes por Empréstimo. The scoping review focused on the potential of arts-based approaches to foster more equitable involvement in policy development, specifically addressing the engagement of underrepresented groups. The theoretical foundation draws on intersectional principles, acknowledging that individuals’ experiences cannot be reduced to isolated attributes, and that societal classifications are both culturally constructed and subject to change over time.

The case study was selected for offering a unique opportunity to reflect on the implementation of LT before structural inequalities, and for opening new pathways for voices to be heard in policymaking. The analysis of this case was based on document analysis and one semi-structured interview with one of the leading partners of this LT, José Soeiro. Document analysis relied on the examination of web resources and documents produced about this specific project, whereas the interview aimed to offer an understanding of how LT was developed from an insider’s perspective.

5. Estudantes por Empréstimo: an overview of the case study

Estudantes por Empréstimo was a project that aimed to centre on the difficulties lived by university students in accessing scholarships, due to both scarcity of opportunities and bureaucratic barriers (Soeiro, 2021). The idea for this performance emerged from previous experiences with Theatre of the Oppressed, as well as lessons learned on Legislative Theatre. José Soeiro, a militant of the Left Bloc party (Bloco de Esquerda) and a Member of the National Parliament, sought innovative ways to bring contentious issues to the public fore, eventually bringing together students from existing movements. As he explained during our interview, theatre allows for political discussion without relying too much on the language of politicians, thereby making our understanding more concrete and engaging.

You see an event like this, and you stop. From the moment you stop, an aesthetic space is installed. From the moment that aesthetic space is installed, you have people’s attention, even if it’s not for long, and so this also allowed us to install this discussion in the faculty space in some way, and then appeal for people to come with us to the room to continue the discussion.

6. Discussion and Conclusions: Can Legislative Theatre help reimagine the democratic participation of underrepresented groups

Estudantes por Empréstimo illustrates how the creation of a collective space by and for university students can bring often unheard voices into decision-making processes. We believe that this case provides a valuable example of how people, and underrepresented groups in particular, can take ownership of their lives through democratic innovations. While this point is relevant due to the growing disaffection between institutions and constituencies (Smith, 2021), it is particularly meaningful when we pursue more just and inclusive decision-making settings (O’Flynn, 2019). In fact, evidence highlights numerous bottlenecks faced by underrepresented groups, which ultimately limit the transformative potential of democratic innovations in altering power relations (Fung & Wright, 2001). Against such trends, grassroots initiatives such as the one analysed in this paper, align with scholarly calls to place self-advocacy at the centre of participatory processes (della Porta & Felicetti, 2022; Knobloch, 2022). 

Our case study contributes to further develop our understanding of the potential that arts-based methodologies can bring to democratic processes, particularly amplifying perspectives that are often excluded from mainstream discourses and decision-making processes. The LT examined in this paper increased collective awareness and self-organization around contentious political issues without resorting to paternalism. Dilemmas grounded in real-life questions confronted participants with multiple options, making LT a highly complex and dynamic stage that reduces the risk of co-opted or predetermined responses. The project not only helped raise awareness, as it shifted preconceived ideas by literally giving stage to creative problem-solving. It is worth saying that a distinctive characteristic of this LT was the presence of a politically engaged group, which most probably fuelled ambitions for collective action. While the strategic approach adopted to bring LT proposals into Parliament had some – albeit diminute – legislative impact, it enabled the reassessment of pre-existing assumptions about problems and solutions in a legislative context.

Therefore, Estudantes por Empréstimo did enable new forms of empathy and collaboration among students about issues that directly affected them. In this regard, the LT process did not only demonstrate to be inclusive, but allowed individuals to analyse their problems, consider alternatives, and mobilize together to build collective action (Mitchell, 2001). By fostering the inclusionary ethos of a consciousness-raising process (Freire, 1970), this LT not only supported goals of personal wellbeing and collective mobilization, but also contributed to the democratization of both knowledge production (Fricker, 2007) and decision-making processes (Nunn, 2022). 

Having said that, we acknowledge some main limitations to our work. First, while the case study illuminates the positive outcomes from the application of arts-based methods applied in democratic innovations, our findings should not be generalized. On the one hand, Estudantes por Empréstimo relied on and was developed through a specific set of contextual conditions, which all concurred to make it one of the most robust examples of LT in Portugal thus far. On the other hand, our understanding would benefit from the analysis of a wider set of cases and, therefore, the adoption of a comparative design with a focus on Portugal, or even a large-N study with an international scope. In addition, our findings should not be generalized because, whereas they offer an in-depth examination of the practices from the point of view of the lead partner, we did not engender other participants. While this may be considered a main limitation of our work, we believe that Soeiro’s point of view legitimately and critically brings the perspective of someone in charge of the organization. Hopefully, future research will complement these findings with more inputs from other participants, as well as LTs in Portugal and abroad.  

In sum, we trust our findings to spark new discussion around whether and how arts-based methods can help challenge structural inequalities and systemic injustice by engaging underrepresented voices in society. Applied Theatre performances, and, by extension Legislative Theatre, “holds within it the possibility of the beginning of new stories” (Prendergast & Saxton, 2016, p. 31). More in general, and inspired by Taylor (2006), Applied Theatre should be mobilized more extensively to uncover much-needed connections between those striving to address (epistemic) injustices and new forms of power.

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